There were numerous attempts at unifying Germany but for some reason, they always failed. Germany was essentially a patchwork of independent states including Prussia and Austria that shared a common language, cultural and historical traits. These states together were referred to as the ‘Holy Roman Empire’. The aforementioned states were the most important and most powerful and were constantly in rivalry. Other states included Saxony, Hanover, Nassau and Bavaria just to name a few. This empire was made of about 100 states, some of which were small city states. The emperor was elected by the nine most important rulers. Usually, the emperor turned out to be a Hapsburg (Austrian).
The French Revolution was a stepping stone for German nationalism. The French Revolution was in its entirety a turning point in world history as it demonstrated the power of unity between a country’s people towards a common goal and nationalism. The Nationalism of the French inspired the Germans.
In July of 1806, Napoleon condensed sixteen of the more important German states (except Prussia and Austria) into the Confederation of the Rhine under the presidency of a Prince Primat (the first being Carl Theodor von Dahlberg). Napoleon was the Protector of the Confederation and in this capacity he garrisoned more than 200,000 men in the various states at the host’s expense. He taxed the people of his empire (excepting France) very highly and imposed on them strict laws and foreign rulers. In September war broke out between France and Prussia following Napoleon dictating to Prussia that she (Prussia) must either bind herself to France or prepare for war. The Prussians were not willing to be under French rule. This in its entirety illustrates the nationalism of the Prussian people as they simply did not give into Napoleon but stood up despite their obvious disadvantage unlike the sixteen states of the Confederation of the Rhine. The Prussian army was however completely destroyed within six weeks ceding much of Prussia to France. Prussia would be dominated by Napoleon until 1812. Kaiser Frederick William III remained as King.
The size of the army of Prussia was limited so as to make sure they could not rise up to become a threat. However, the Prussians found ways around the rules of Napoleon which also illustrates how nationalistic and proud they were. For example, as it relates to the army, though there were limitations, the Prussians would intensively train all able-bodied men in short military training sessions and then send them off to ‘reserves’ for whenever they were needed to fight for Prussia and a new group of men would arrive who would be trained normally and enlisted into the regular army and fight for Napoleon’s France.
Essentially, Napoleon’s conquest of Europe (including the German states) was simply a strategic plan in his resentment towards the British. He imposed the Continental System which was a blockade of Britain in an effort to stagnate her foreign trade. Within this, he forbade his empire to trade with Britain. These factors led to resentment in the German states towards France, but more specifically Napoleon. As such, the Napoleonic Era invariably caused a spike in nationalism. The period was characterized by two forms of Nationalism – Conservative which was a desire to go back to the old days before Napoleon and Liberal where people wanted more for Germany including true self government.
The Germans had lost their language, their legacy, their traditions etc and now that something new was forcibly imposed on them, they began to appreciate what they had and who they were. This intensified their desire to irradiate the new and become German again. Nationalism in the German states favoured Prussia more than Austria since the latter included non-German people (Italians, Slavs, Hungarians and Romanians) whereas the former was predominately German. Prussia became the focal point of German Nationalism.
German nationalism went beyond a mere opposing French rule. The period saw the patriotism of the Germans shining bright with philosophers and artists such as Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Kant, Hegel, and Beethoven rising to the forefront. They borrowed ideas and were inspired by the Enlightenment however; they entirely opposed French Enlightenment Rationalism. Instead, Romanticism was born. Romanticism challenged nearly every aspect of French Rationalism.
The Prussian state raised the pinnacles again by 1815. This is owed to administrators such as Baron Stein and Hardenberg who introduced reforms that capitalized on the anti-Napoleon Nationalism. The economy was thriving and the army was powerful. The development of the army is owed to the work of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau who employed two strategies that played on patriotism and talent. These developments were all influenced by a desire to defeat and suppress France – NATIONALISM!
Napoleon had been in a quarrel with Russia since 1810 when Tsar Alexander I withdrew Russia from the Continental System. Napoleon was outraged at this move and sent his Grand Army which attacked in May 1812. The army was made up of soldiers from France as well as all the nations he dominated. At the Battle of Borodino in September, the Grand Army defeated the Russians but even though he won, it turned out to be a major disadvantage for him since the winter of 1812 came early. Majority of the Grand Army was lost. In December he formed another army but this one would never measure up the Grand Army.
The Nationalism of the German people shines brightly in 1813 as the Prussians and Austrians along with members of the Confederation of the Rhine and the Swedish and British joined forces with Russia. Napoleon was defeated at Leipzig in what is commonly referred to as the ‘Battle of Nations’. In April 1814 Napoleon abdicated through the Treaty of Fontainebleau. The following year Louis VXIII signed the Treaty of Paris that returned France to it 1792 boundaries.
At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved and those states came together with Prussia and Austria in the German Confederation.
Unification was not yet achieved but the Germans were more or less united. After the Congress of Vienna, much emphasis was placed on the economy – particularly regarding trade and tariffs. There existed high tariffs between states but the Junkers (aristocrat landowners) pushed for free movement of goods. In 1818 the Junkers was able to persuade the King of Prussia to abolish the tariffs in his territories. From this, the Zollverine was born. The Zollverine was a Customs Union where all internal barriers to trade were removed. It provided a uniform currency, systems of weights and measure and allowed for the free flow of goods across its member states simultaneously offering tariff protection against foreign competition. By 1844 almost all of the German Confederation was a part of it except Austria. The Zollverine turned out to be an integral factor for the eventual unification as it boosted the economy and allowed Prussia to rise to leadership. The Zollverine did not have any widespread political effects but it made the Confederation dependant on each other thus paving the way for the eventual political unification. In addition, the Zollverine aided in industrialization.
The 1848 Revolutions in France inspired the Germans to try at unification. The Germans wanted liberal reforms and to be unified under a constitutional monarchy. In March riots broke out in what is referred to as the ‘March Days’. The consequence of this was Kaiser Frederick William IV of Prussia introducing some liberal reforms and a promise to introduce a parliament and a constitution for Prussia. In May, the parliamentary assembly was elected by universal manhood suffrage and met in Frankfurt on the 18th May where deliberations into the constitution began.
The parliament was divided on whether Austria should be included in the new German Confederation. Some argued that there were large parts of Austria that were inhabited by non-Germans and this could eventually cause problems. In addition they felt that the Austrians would be opposed to a liberal constitution. However, others argued that Austria was the dominant force and she should not only be included but also that the imperial crown of Germany should be offered to them. In the end, the Austrians were excluded and Prussia would assume leadership.
The parliament comprising of Middle Class civil servants, lawyers, philosophers and historians drew up the new boundaries of Germany without an Austria. The constitution was drafted and the imperial crown was offered to Kaiser Frederick William IV but he refused it in March 1849. This ultimately ended all hopes of a united Germany. The Kaiser, by royal decree, issued his own constitution in Prussia. The new constitution introduced a two house parliament where the upper house consisted of Junker nobility while the lower house was elected. The election of the lower house was done by the wealthiest 20% of the voters. The new constitution gave the Kaiser an absolute veto over all legislation and the authority to suspend any and all civil liberties and the ability to rule by royal decree.
Kaiser Frederick William IV tried to form a Prussian dominated federation of North German States to be called the Erfurt Union but this idea was opposed by the Austrians who forced the Prussians into signing the Agreement of Olmutz in November 1850 where Prussia abandoned plans of the Erfurt Union and Austria would revive the German Confederation under her leadership. This is commonly referred to as the ‘Humiliation of Olmutz’ for Prussia.
The man responsible for German Unification is Otto von Bismarck. He was a conservative Junker. Bismarck opposed Austria and wanted to overthrown the Confederation and set up a united Germany led by Prussia. He was appointed by Kaiser William I to head the Prussian Cabinet. Bismarck functioned on the notion that he was God’s chosen instrument to bring about unification to Germany under Prussia.
Bismarck was in a sense fearless and was more or less the ruler of Prussia as he was heavily supported by William I. He was action-oriented. He eventually brought Unification to Germany by using trickery, bribery and military force.
The first thing Bismarck did when he came to power is develop the army into a ‘human war machine’. This included strategizing to plan for every possible situation that the army could encounter in the fields. In addition, they developed new, modern and enhanced weaponry such as the Needle Guns. The Prussian army quickly became the best in Europe.
At first, Bismarck was hated by the Prussian people because he frequently ignored the Parliament. Prior to his appointment, Kaiser William I wanted to develop the army but the parliament refused. When Bismarck was appointed, he did not consult with parliament. Taxes were increased and Bismarck collected it without parliamentary authorization and fuelled it into the enhancement of the army. However, the opposition to Bismarck could do nothing and had to accept him.
Bismarck achieved unification of Germany through three separate wars.
The biggest difficulty for Bismarck concerned Austria. As mentioned before, he did not support Austrian motives and wanted to remove them from the Confederation. However, this was a delicate situation as the German people liked Austria. They did not view the Austrians as foreign and if Bismarck attacked Austria, it could potentially cause havoc. As such, Bismarck relied on his skills of diplomacy which was laced with trickery and bribery.
The first of the three wars was the Danish War in 1864. This arose out of a conflict over the control of the provinces of Schleswig – Holstein. These two provinces were on the border between Denmark and Germany. They were ruled by Denmark but not a part of the Danish empire as per the London Protocol of 1852. Holstein comprised of an entirely German population and Schleswig was a concoction of Germans and Danes. In 1863, King Christian IX rose to the Danish thrown and proclaimed a new constitution that tried to annex the two provinces. This alarmed Bismarck, the German Parliament and the Great Powers who administered the London Protocol. Bismarck who the latter two as impediments in him securing the two provinces. As such, he used his skills in diplomacy. He told the Great Powers that the issue is a German one involving the Danes and thus would be settled by the Germans. On this account, the Great Powers backed away. The German Parliament could very well move in and annex the two provinces in aid of Austria. To deal with them, he told them that the issue surrounds the London Protocol and thus is not a German one and should be left to the Great Powers. The Parliament backed off on the insistence of Austria who fell into Bismarck’s trap. Shortly after, Bismarck persuaded Austria to join with him in protesting to the Danish King to revoke the constitution. Kind Christian IX however refused and Prussia and Austria waged war on Denmark in 1864. Denmark was severely losing and after three months she surrendered. The peace treaty that followed placed the two provinces under Austria and Prussia jointly. However, disagreement over what should follow emerged leading Austria to take the issue to parliament where it was decided that Austria would govern Holstein and Prussia would govern Schleswig. This was not what Bismarck wanted which prompted the Seven Weeks War.
The Seven Weeks War began in 1866 between Austria and Prussia. After the Danish War Bismarck took measures to ensure that in the event of a war with Austria, no one would aid her (Austria). These measures included him persuading Napoleon III of France to remain neutral in the event of an Austro-Prussian War. Napoleon guaranteed his neutrality in return for land – specifically territory held by the South German States. Bismarck told Napoleon to write down his demands (which he did). With French neutrality dealt with, Bismarck focused his attention to Italy. The two made an agreement that Italy would fight against Austria while Prussia is doing the same thereby creating a war on two fronts for Austria. In exchange, when Prussia is triumphant, Italy would be given the Austrian controlled Venetia in an effort to complete her unification.
Bismarck invaded Holstein and drove the Austrians out and then provoked them to wage war. Austria did so in June 1866. However, the Prussian army was essentially a ‘human war machine’ that was well equipped with the latest weapons and well trained. Austria expected to easily and quickly defeat the Prussians considering they were supported by the South German states. But the reality was the opposite. Within six weeks, all of Germany was at the mercy of the Prussian army led by General Carl von Moltke.
The Treaty of Prague ended the war. This also saw Austria exiting the German Confederation and surrendering Holstein to Prussia. With Austria out of the way now, unification was closer than ever and in the hands of Prussia.
The North German Confederation was formed in 1867 after majority of the northern states united with Prussia. The King of Prussia became the president of this new Confederation and Bismarck the Chancellor.
In 1867, Bismarck improved on the Zollverine which further improved the economy. He introduced the Zollparlament comprising of deputies elected by the people of the North and South German States. This body would look after and discuss the economic and commercial interests of Germany.
In order for unification to be achieved, the southern states of Bavaria, Baden, Wurttemberg and the southern part of Hesse-Darmstadt need to unite with Prussia. This lead to the final war that secured Unification.
The Franco – Prussian War of 1870 illustrates the excellent skill that Bismarck possessed in trickery. He knew that the Southern German States supported Austria and thus would not be receptive of uniting with Prussia. As such he used France as a pawn in his game.
In 1870 the Spanish throne opened up and it was offered to Prince Leopold who happened to be the cousin of the King of Prussia. The French, afraid that Prussia would amass so much dominance in Europe if Leopold took the crown took a strong stance against the offering of the throne to him. He asked Leopold to turn the offer down, which he eventually did but Napoleon III went further requesting a meeting with King William of Prussia. The French ambassador and King William meet at Ems, a resort where he (the ambassador) demanded that no relative of William’s is to take to the throne of Spain. The King of Prussia took notes from the meeting which he sent to Bismarck who then altered it to make it seem as if the King dismissed the ambassador offensively and contemptuously. He then dispatched the altered report to the newspapers.
This outraged Napoleon III and humiliated him. Napoleon then waged war on Prussia in July. Bismarck now had his opportunity to unite with the South German states where he showed them the document that Napoleon wrote in 1865 demanding the South German states. Bismarck persuaded the South German states that France posed a great threat to them, more than Prussia could ever pose. This led the South German states to align with Prussia finally.
Together, Prussian and the Southern German States were able to defeat France within a few months. The German army was way more advanced than the French. They were larger, better trained and better equipped. As such, from the get go, France was in trouble. The functioning and leading of the French army was weak and they often found themselves short of ammunition and equipment like harnesses for horses. There was even one instance where a General could not locate his brigade. The Germans were easily able to move into France and defeat them. On the 1st September, Napoleon was captured as well as the main French army. Napoleon sent a telegram to Paris stating he was captured. The next day crowds of people invaded the Parliament Chambers shouting “Down with the Empire! Long live the Republic!”. The Provisional Government of National Defense was set up. The French in Paris were not ready to give up hope of losing to the Germans yet. They rallied until France eventually surrendered at the end of January 1871 due to starvation. The war was short, but decisive.
At the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles Germany was declared unified and demands were made by Napoleon. These demands included the annexation of Alsace – Lorraine and a large indemnity. Alsace – Lorraine was wanted because it was formerly a part of the Holy Roman Empire and Bismarck wanted the recovery of all ‘imperial lands’. In addition, these regions were highly industrialized and would also be of strategic military importance.
On May 10th, 1871 the Treaty of Frankfurt was signed that acknowledged the annexation of Alsace – Lorraine, an indemnity imposed on France of 5Billion Francs and that German troops would occupy certain French fortresses until the indemnity was finished being paid.
Germany was finally unified!
The French Revolution was a stepping stone for German nationalism. The French Revolution was in its entirety a turning point in world history as it demonstrated the power of unity between a country’s people towards a common goal and nationalism. The Nationalism of the French inspired the Germans.
In July of 1806, Napoleon condensed sixteen of the more important German states (except Prussia and Austria) into the Confederation of the Rhine under the presidency of a Prince Primat (the first being Carl Theodor von Dahlberg). Napoleon was the Protector of the Confederation and in this capacity he garrisoned more than 200,000 men in the various states at the host’s expense. He taxed the people of his empire (excepting France) very highly and imposed on them strict laws and foreign rulers. In September war broke out between France and Prussia following Napoleon dictating to Prussia that she (Prussia) must either bind herself to France or prepare for war. The Prussians were not willing to be under French rule. This in its entirety illustrates the nationalism of the Prussian people as they simply did not give into Napoleon but stood up despite their obvious disadvantage unlike the sixteen states of the Confederation of the Rhine. The Prussian army was however completely destroyed within six weeks ceding much of Prussia to France. Prussia would be dominated by Napoleon until 1812. Kaiser Frederick William III remained as King.
The size of the army of Prussia was limited so as to make sure they could not rise up to become a threat. However, the Prussians found ways around the rules of Napoleon which also illustrates how nationalistic and proud they were. For example, as it relates to the army, though there were limitations, the Prussians would intensively train all able-bodied men in short military training sessions and then send them off to ‘reserves’ for whenever they were needed to fight for Prussia and a new group of men would arrive who would be trained normally and enlisted into the regular army and fight for Napoleon’s France.
Essentially, Napoleon’s conquest of Europe (including the German states) was simply a strategic plan in his resentment towards the British. He imposed the Continental System which was a blockade of Britain in an effort to stagnate her foreign trade. Within this, he forbade his empire to trade with Britain. These factors led to resentment in the German states towards France, but more specifically Napoleon. As such, the Napoleonic Era invariably caused a spike in nationalism. The period was characterized by two forms of Nationalism – Conservative which was a desire to go back to the old days before Napoleon and Liberal where people wanted more for Germany including true self government.
The Germans had lost their language, their legacy, their traditions etc and now that something new was forcibly imposed on them, they began to appreciate what they had and who they were. This intensified their desire to irradiate the new and become German again. Nationalism in the German states favoured Prussia more than Austria since the latter included non-German people (Italians, Slavs, Hungarians and Romanians) whereas the former was predominately German. Prussia became the focal point of German Nationalism.
German nationalism went beyond a mere opposing French rule. The period saw the patriotism of the Germans shining bright with philosophers and artists such as Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Kant, Hegel, and Beethoven rising to the forefront. They borrowed ideas and were inspired by the Enlightenment however; they entirely opposed French Enlightenment Rationalism. Instead, Romanticism was born. Romanticism challenged nearly every aspect of French Rationalism.
The Prussian state raised the pinnacles again by 1815. This is owed to administrators such as Baron Stein and Hardenberg who introduced reforms that capitalized on the anti-Napoleon Nationalism. The economy was thriving and the army was powerful. The development of the army is owed to the work of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau who employed two strategies that played on patriotism and talent. These developments were all influenced by a desire to defeat and suppress France – NATIONALISM!
Napoleon had been in a quarrel with Russia since 1810 when Tsar Alexander I withdrew Russia from the Continental System. Napoleon was outraged at this move and sent his Grand Army which attacked in May 1812. The army was made up of soldiers from France as well as all the nations he dominated. At the Battle of Borodino in September, the Grand Army defeated the Russians but even though he won, it turned out to be a major disadvantage for him since the winter of 1812 came early. Majority of the Grand Army was lost. In December he formed another army but this one would never measure up the Grand Army.
The Nationalism of the German people shines brightly in 1813 as the Prussians and Austrians along with members of the Confederation of the Rhine and the Swedish and British joined forces with Russia. Napoleon was defeated at Leipzig in what is commonly referred to as the ‘Battle of Nations’. In April 1814 Napoleon abdicated through the Treaty of Fontainebleau. The following year Louis VXIII signed the Treaty of Paris that returned France to it 1792 boundaries.
At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved and those states came together with Prussia and Austria in the German Confederation.
Unification was not yet achieved but the Germans were more or less united. After the Congress of Vienna, much emphasis was placed on the economy – particularly regarding trade and tariffs. There existed high tariffs between states but the Junkers (aristocrat landowners) pushed for free movement of goods. In 1818 the Junkers was able to persuade the King of Prussia to abolish the tariffs in his territories. From this, the Zollverine was born. The Zollverine was a Customs Union where all internal barriers to trade were removed. It provided a uniform currency, systems of weights and measure and allowed for the free flow of goods across its member states simultaneously offering tariff protection against foreign competition. By 1844 almost all of the German Confederation was a part of it except Austria. The Zollverine turned out to be an integral factor for the eventual unification as it boosted the economy and allowed Prussia to rise to leadership. The Zollverine did not have any widespread political effects but it made the Confederation dependant on each other thus paving the way for the eventual political unification. In addition, the Zollverine aided in industrialization.
The 1848 Revolutions in France inspired the Germans to try at unification. The Germans wanted liberal reforms and to be unified under a constitutional monarchy. In March riots broke out in what is referred to as the ‘March Days’. The consequence of this was Kaiser Frederick William IV of Prussia introducing some liberal reforms and a promise to introduce a parliament and a constitution for Prussia. In May, the parliamentary assembly was elected by universal manhood suffrage and met in Frankfurt on the 18th May where deliberations into the constitution began.
The parliament was divided on whether Austria should be included in the new German Confederation. Some argued that there were large parts of Austria that were inhabited by non-Germans and this could eventually cause problems. In addition they felt that the Austrians would be opposed to a liberal constitution. However, others argued that Austria was the dominant force and she should not only be included but also that the imperial crown of Germany should be offered to them. In the end, the Austrians were excluded and Prussia would assume leadership.
The parliament comprising of Middle Class civil servants, lawyers, philosophers and historians drew up the new boundaries of Germany without an Austria. The constitution was drafted and the imperial crown was offered to Kaiser Frederick William IV but he refused it in March 1849. This ultimately ended all hopes of a united Germany. The Kaiser, by royal decree, issued his own constitution in Prussia. The new constitution introduced a two house parliament where the upper house consisted of Junker nobility while the lower house was elected. The election of the lower house was done by the wealthiest 20% of the voters. The new constitution gave the Kaiser an absolute veto over all legislation and the authority to suspend any and all civil liberties and the ability to rule by royal decree.
Kaiser Frederick William IV tried to form a Prussian dominated federation of North German States to be called the Erfurt Union but this idea was opposed by the Austrians who forced the Prussians into signing the Agreement of Olmutz in November 1850 where Prussia abandoned plans of the Erfurt Union and Austria would revive the German Confederation under her leadership. This is commonly referred to as the ‘Humiliation of Olmutz’ for Prussia.
The man responsible for German Unification is Otto von Bismarck. He was a conservative Junker. Bismarck opposed Austria and wanted to overthrown the Confederation and set up a united Germany led by Prussia. He was appointed by Kaiser William I to head the Prussian Cabinet. Bismarck functioned on the notion that he was God’s chosen instrument to bring about unification to Germany under Prussia.
Bismarck was in a sense fearless and was more or less the ruler of Prussia as he was heavily supported by William I. He was action-oriented. He eventually brought Unification to Germany by using trickery, bribery and military force.
The first thing Bismarck did when he came to power is develop the army into a ‘human war machine’. This included strategizing to plan for every possible situation that the army could encounter in the fields. In addition, they developed new, modern and enhanced weaponry such as the Needle Guns. The Prussian army quickly became the best in Europe.
At first, Bismarck was hated by the Prussian people because he frequently ignored the Parliament. Prior to his appointment, Kaiser William I wanted to develop the army but the parliament refused. When Bismarck was appointed, he did not consult with parliament. Taxes were increased and Bismarck collected it without parliamentary authorization and fuelled it into the enhancement of the army. However, the opposition to Bismarck could do nothing and had to accept him.
Bismarck achieved unification of Germany through three separate wars.
The biggest difficulty for Bismarck concerned Austria. As mentioned before, he did not support Austrian motives and wanted to remove them from the Confederation. However, this was a delicate situation as the German people liked Austria. They did not view the Austrians as foreign and if Bismarck attacked Austria, it could potentially cause havoc. As such, Bismarck relied on his skills of diplomacy which was laced with trickery and bribery.
The first of the three wars was the Danish War in 1864. This arose out of a conflict over the control of the provinces of Schleswig – Holstein. These two provinces were on the border between Denmark and Germany. They were ruled by Denmark but not a part of the Danish empire as per the London Protocol of 1852. Holstein comprised of an entirely German population and Schleswig was a concoction of Germans and Danes. In 1863, King Christian IX rose to the Danish thrown and proclaimed a new constitution that tried to annex the two provinces. This alarmed Bismarck, the German Parliament and the Great Powers who administered the London Protocol. Bismarck who the latter two as impediments in him securing the two provinces. As such, he used his skills in diplomacy. He told the Great Powers that the issue is a German one involving the Danes and thus would be settled by the Germans. On this account, the Great Powers backed away. The German Parliament could very well move in and annex the two provinces in aid of Austria. To deal with them, he told them that the issue surrounds the London Protocol and thus is not a German one and should be left to the Great Powers. The Parliament backed off on the insistence of Austria who fell into Bismarck’s trap. Shortly after, Bismarck persuaded Austria to join with him in protesting to the Danish King to revoke the constitution. Kind Christian IX however refused and Prussia and Austria waged war on Denmark in 1864. Denmark was severely losing and after three months she surrendered. The peace treaty that followed placed the two provinces under Austria and Prussia jointly. However, disagreement over what should follow emerged leading Austria to take the issue to parliament where it was decided that Austria would govern Holstein and Prussia would govern Schleswig. This was not what Bismarck wanted which prompted the Seven Weeks War.
The Seven Weeks War began in 1866 between Austria and Prussia. After the Danish War Bismarck took measures to ensure that in the event of a war with Austria, no one would aid her (Austria). These measures included him persuading Napoleon III of France to remain neutral in the event of an Austro-Prussian War. Napoleon guaranteed his neutrality in return for land – specifically territory held by the South German States. Bismarck told Napoleon to write down his demands (which he did). With French neutrality dealt with, Bismarck focused his attention to Italy. The two made an agreement that Italy would fight against Austria while Prussia is doing the same thereby creating a war on two fronts for Austria. In exchange, when Prussia is triumphant, Italy would be given the Austrian controlled Venetia in an effort to complete her unification.
Bismarck invaded Holstein and drove the Austrians out and then provoked them to wage war. Austria did so in June 1866. However, the Prussian army was essentially a ‘human war machine’ that was well equipped with the latest weapons and well trained. Austria expected to easily and quickly defeat the Prussians considering they were supported by the South German states. But the reality was the opposite. Within six weeks, all of Germany was at the mercy of the Prussian army led by General Carl von Moltke.
The Treaty of Prague ended the war. This also saw Austria exiting the German Confederation and surrendering Holstein to Prussia. With Austria out of the way now, unification was closer than ever and in the hands of Prussia.
The North German Confederation was formed in 1867 after majority of the northern states united with Prussia. The King of Prussia became the president of this new Confederation and Bismarck the Chancellor.
In 1867, Bismarck improved on the Zollverine which further improved the economy. He introduced the Zollparlament comprising of deputies elected by the people of the North and South German States. This body would look after and discuss the economic and commercial interests of Germany.
In order for unification to be achieved, the southern states of Bavaria, Baden, Wurttemberg and the southern part of Hesse-Darmstadt need to unite with Prussia. This lead to the final war that secured Unification.
The Franco – Prussian War of 1870 illustrates the excellent skill that Bismarck possessed in trickery. He knew that the Southern German States supported Austria and thus would not be receptive of uniting with Prussia. As such he used France as a pawn in his game.
In 1870 the Spanish throne opened up and it was offered to Prince Leopold who happened to be the cousin of the King of Prussia. The French, afraid that Prussia would amass so much dominance in Europe if Leopold took the crown took a strong stance against the offering of the throne to him. He asked Leopold to turn the offer down, which he eventually did but Napoleon III went further requesting a meeting with King William of Prussia. The French ambassador and King William meet at Ems, a resort where he (the ambassador) demanded that no relative of William’s is to take to the throne of Spain. The King of Prussia took notes from the meeting which he sent to Bismarck who then altered it to make it seem as if the King dismissed the ambassador offensively and contemptuously. He then dispatched the altered report to the newspapers.
This outraged Napoleon III and humiliated him. Napoleon then waged war on Prussia in July. Bismarck now had his opportunity to unite with the South German states where he showed them the document that Napoleon wrote in 1865 demanding the South German states. Bismarck persuaded the South German states that France posed a great threat to them, more than Prussia could ever pose. This led the South German states to align with Prussia finally.
Together, Prussian and the Southern German States were able to defeat France within a few months. The German army was way more advanced than the French. They were larger, better trained and better equipped. As such, from the get go, France was in trouble. The functioning and leading of the French army was weak and they often found themselves short of ammunition and equipment like harnesses for horses. There was even one instance where a General could not locate his brigade. The Germans were easily able to move into France and defeat them. On the 1st September, Napoleon was captured as well as the main French army. Napoleon sent a telegram to Paris stating he was captured. The next day crowds of people invaded the Parliament Chambers shouting “Down with the Empire! Long live the Republic!”. The Provisional Government of National Defense was set up. The French in Paris were not ready to give up hope of losing to the Germans yet. They rallied until France eventually surrendered at the end of January 1871 due to starvation. The war was short, but decisive.
At the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles Germany was declared unified and demands were made by Napoleon. These demands included the annexation of Alsace – Lorraine and a large indemnity. Alsace – Lorraine was wanted because it was formerly a part of the Holy Roman Empire and Bismarck wanted the recovery of all ‘imperial lands’. In addition, these regions were highly industrialized and would also be of strategic military importance.
On May 10th, 1871 the Treaty of Frankfurt was signed that acknowledged the annexation of Alsace – Lorraine, an indemnity imposed on France of 5Billion Francs and that German troops would occupy certain French fortresses until the indemnity was finished being paid.
Germany was finally unified!